Nature Climate Change, Published online: 13 July 2020; doi:10.1038/s41558-020-0841-x
Short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs) are thought to have short-term impacts relative to CO2. A compact Earth system model estimates SLCFs have caused substantial, long-term impacts via carbon–climate feedbacks since the pre-industrial era but species-dependent impacts of opposite sign largely cancel.